Animal Slaughter

In slaughter animals that provide muscle for meat, a surplus of energy is usually available and muscle growth and fat depot formation is the purpose of animal production.

From: Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences , 2004

Processing of red meat carcasses

Akhilesh K. Verma , ... Awis Qurni Sazili , in Postharvest and Postmortem Processing of Raw Food Materials, 2022

8.2.5 Antemortem inspection

Slaughter animals should be provided sufficient rest and gently handled during examination. It is very important for producing clean and safe meat, safeguarding the health of meat consumers. Antemortem examination is performed 12–24   h preslaughter in lairage by qualified veterinarians assisted by sufficient paraveterinary personnel. The design and layout of lairage should have proper provision of light and isolation pen for separating injured or diseased animals. It is advised to provide ad-lib water and not feed animal for at least 12   h before slaughter. Antemortem examination helps identification and control of animals suffering from any infections or diseases with identification of some diseases that are very difficult to identify after slaughter such as tetanus, rabies, sturdy in sheep, listeriosis, etc., to prevent food borne illness and poisonings, to ensure safety of butchers and slaughterhouse personnel, to prevent contamination in premises and to make postmortem examination more efficient.

The antemortem examination is performed in two stages, that is, general examination and detailed examination. Under general examination the animal is observed for general behavior, fatigue, reflexes, posture and gait in lairage at rest as well as in motion. The animal exhibiting any abnormal signs is separated from the normal, apparently healthy animals and undergoes further detailed examination such as temperature, respiration, and pulse rate. Animals exhibiting high temperature than normal and other systematic issues should be held for further inspection.

Based on the antemortem examination, judgment is made as fit for slaughter for animals free from diseases and exhibiting normal physiological parameters, unfit for slaughter in case animal is emaciated or affected by rabies, tetanus or that cannot be treated and suspects animals for which slaughter is delayed and need further attention or investigation. Animals with localized conditions and/or recovered from diseases should be slaughtered with further instructions for detailed postmortem examination. Some animals are detained for specific periods to treat diseases. A judgment of emergency slaughter is taken in animals suffering from acute pain or condition where any delay in slaughter is considered contrary to the welfare of the animal.

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Membrane Contactors and Integrated Membrane Operations

A. Koltuniewicz , in Comprehensive Membrane Science and Engineering, 2010

4.05.2.17 Meat Industry

Animal slaughter and processing produces very strong organic waste from body fluids, such as blood, and gut contents. The primary steps in processing livestock include rendering and bleeding, scalding and/or skin removal, internal organ evisceration, washing, chilling, and cooling, packaging, and cleanup. Animal blood is a by-product of slaughterhouses, and contains proteins of a high biological value as well as being a possible source for biotechnology products. Blood contains about 18% proteins, almost as much as lean meat, and is sometimes referred to as liquid protein. Because of its high nutritional value, blood as food additive is cost-competitive in comparison with other proteins, such as soy and milk proteins, used in sausage formulations. The dry proteins have excellent gelling properties and emulsifying capacity and can be used for the production of yoghurt, cheese, and cakes [714]. Protein concentrates prepared from whole blood are excellent emulsifiers [715]. Whole blood proteins exhibit emulsification capacities and emulsion stabilities equal to or greater than that of proteins of other organ and tissue concentrates including muscle proteins [716]. Plasma and globe protein isolates prepared from slaughter blood are ideal emulsifiers under optimum conditions of pH and protein concentration [717]. Vacuum evaporation, freeze drying, and gel filtration are the processes that can be used for concentrating blood proteins without degrading their delicate and revenue-producing properties; however, UF of plasma proteins is more efficient than plasma freezing [718] or chemical coagulation. Bioreactors with aerobic [719] and anaerobic digestion [720] are used for wastewater treatment. In the latter case, the biogas is produced as the source of energy recovery.

Wastewater from slaughterhouses contains a large variety and quantity of contaminants, characterized mainly by a complex mixture of protein substances, lipids, and fibers. Wastewater is also frequently contaminated by significant levels of antibiotics and growth hormones from the animals and by a variety of pesticides used to control external parasites. Insecticide residues in fleeces are a particular problem in treating waters generated in wool processing. In meat, poultry, and seafood-processing facilities, the main problem is pathogenic organisms. Wastewaters with high pathogenic levels must be disinfected prior to discharge. Typically, chlorine (free or combined) is used to disinfect these wastewaters. Ozone, ultraviolet radiation, and other disinfection processes are gaining acceptance due to stricter regulations on the amount of residual chlorine levels in discharged wastewaters. Various techniques, which include anaerobic digestion, precipitation with ammonium sulfate, and MF, are used in the treatment of abattoir effluent. Wastewater treatment of slaughterhouse effluents can also be the source of valuable proteins for sale. Much work was also conducted on protein recovery from wastewater by UF [716].

In meat production, membranes are used for filtration, concentration, and deashing of pork, bone, or beef gelatin beef tallow clarification, gelatin primary clarification, meat brine clarification for bacteria removal and brine reuse, beef wash water porcine bovine blood plasma, and chicken blood, gelatin production. Application of membranes in meat technologies enable to avoid the extremely heavy loaded (BOD) wastewaters from abattoirs by recovery of proteins from animal blood.

The plasma is concentrated in membrane processes such as UF, RO, or cryo-concentration before atomization or cooling. UF concentration of blood proteins is faster, very simple, and the energy requirements are very low; are not thermal and do not alter the solute; and, finally, concentration, fractionation, and purification can be carried out simultaneously. UF is also 50% less expensive than vacuum evaporation for animal blood concentration [721] Optimum parameters of concentrating blood plasma by UF have been presented in many papers [722], including influence of feed flow rate, membrane pore size, and pressure on protein concentration [661, 723].

Animal blood is the principal organic pollutant discharged in wastewaters. Some reports concerning blood separation [722] and fractionation in industrial scale [724] encourage using membrane processes for simultaneous recovery of water from waste effluents – NF [725], NF/UV integrated system [726]. The UF PES membranes with a 40   000   MWCO and the RO membranes made of cellulose acetate were used to treat effluent from red meat abattoirs [727]. A cost for treating the effluent was $0.62   m−3 versus $1.16   m−3 for anaerobic digestion.

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MEAT | Slaughter

K. Troeger , in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Second Edition), 2003

Killing

Killing of slaughter animals is usually done by exsanguination (bleeding). An incision (sticking) which severs the major arteries of the neck or anterior thoracic cavity causes a rapid loss of blood, resulting in a lack of oxygen to the brain. Irreversible cellular changes occur and the animal dies. Because most stunning methods are reversible as a rule, prompt and accurate (effective) sticking is of high importance from the animal welfare point of view.

Bleeding can be done with the animal in a vertical or horizontal position. The most common technique is to shackle a hind leg and to elevate the stunned animal on the bleeding rail, where sticking is done in a hanging position. There is a significant positive effect on pork quality (reduction of PSE), if prone bleeding is practiced. Sticking is done immediately after electrical stunning on a movable conveyor. For a bleeding time of about 2   min, the pigs are conveyed in a horizontal position. As a result, muscle spasms have a less detrimental effect on meat quality, and internal ham bruising and bloodsplashing are obviated.

Severing of the common carotid arteries or the vessels from which they arise during sticking can be done in different ways. A transverse incision of the neck is a common method of bleeding sheep. This method is also used for ritual slaughtering of sheep and cattle.

Ritual slaughter is performed by a throat cut, which severs all soft tissues of the throat (muscles, blood vessels, esophagus, trachea, nerves) without preslaughter stunning. It is necessary to distinguish between kosher (Jewish) slaughter and halal (Muslim) slaughter. For kosher slaughter, there exist exact rules for the slaughter process, the instruments used, and the qualifications of the slaughterman. A straight, razor-sharp knife (chalaf) that is twice the width of the throat is required, and the cut must be made in a single continuous motion. For halal slaughter, no special knife design is required.

Another sticking method, lateral stab incision of the neck, avoids incision of the trachea and esophagus, because this may result in aspiration of blood and pollution of the blood by stomach contents. Finally, thoracic sticking is commonly used for cattle and pigs. The knife is inserted in the midline, cranial of the sternum bone, so that the bicarotid trunk and anterior vena cava are incised.

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STUNNING | CO2 and Other Gases

A.B.M. Raj , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014

Commercial Implications

Experiments with the carbon dioxide stunning of pigs have shown that exposure to a minimum of 70% carbon dioxide for 90   s results in stunning; therefore sticking (bleeding or exsanguination) should be performed as soon as possible (e.g., ideally within 15   s of exiting the gas) to prevent resumption of consciousness. When the duration of exposure to this level of carbon dioxide is increased, the incidence of death also increases. Under high-throughput conditions, exposure of pigs to a minimum of 90% by volume of carbon dioxide in air for 3–5   min results in death in the majority of pigs, which can be recognized from the presence of dilated pupils and absence of gagging (rudimentary respiratory activity) at the exit from the gas.

In Denmark, where almost all pigs are stunned using carbon dioxide, a comprehensive automatic system for driving large groups of pigs (15–16 pigs) from the lairage to the point of stunning, dividing them into small groups (e.g., 5–6 pigs) and loading them onto a lift, which is lowered into a carbon dioxide stunning unit, has been developed. In comparison with the conventional pig handling and loading systems and carbon dioxide stunning units, this group handling and stunning system is far better on animal welfare grounds.

It has been reported that exposure of pigs to either argon-induced anoxia or the carbon dioxide–argon mixture for 3   min resulted in satisfactory stunning; however, bleeding should commence within 15   s to avoid resumption of consciousness. A 5   min exposure to these gas mixtures followed by bleeding within 45   s prevented carcass convulsions during bleeding. The results also showed that exposure of pigs to argon-induced anoxia or the carbon dioxide–argon mixture for 7   min resulted in death in the majority of pigs. Owing to the prolonged exposure time required to kill pigs with anoxia, it is not used under commercial conditions. However, further research and development is needed to evaluate the feasibility of inducing unconsciousness with anoxia and then killing pigs by other means (e.g., induction of cardiac arrest in unconscious pigs using an electric current).

Chickens and turkeys can be killed with a minimum of a 2   min exposure to 50% by volume carbon dioxide in air, 90% by volume of argon or nitrogen in air, and a mixture containing less than 30% by volume of carbon dioxide in argon or nitrogen.

The Welfare of Animals (Slaughter or Killing) Regulations in the UK approved the use of a minimum of 70% by volume of carbon dioxide in air for killing pigs. However, on bird welfare grounds, this regulation does not allow the use of carbon dioxide for killing domestic poultry, except for disease-control purposes. Instead, two other gas mixtures have been approved for killing domestic poultry intended for human consumption:

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Argon, nitrogen, or other inert gases, or any mixture of these gases, in atmospheric air with a maximum of 2% oxygen by volume.

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Any mixture of argon, nitrogen, or other inert gases with atmospheric air and carbon dioxide provided that the carbon dioxide concentration does not exceed 30% by volume and the oxygen concentration does not exceed by 2% by volume.

However, the European Slaughter Regulation 1099/2009, which comes into force from January 2013, permits the use of:

1.

Direct or progressive exposure of conscious pigs to a gas mixture containing more than 40% carbon dioxide for pigs.

2.

Direct or progressive exposure of conscious pigs and poultry to an inert gas mixture such as argon or nitrogen leading to anoxia.

3.

Direct or progressive exposure of conscious pigs and poultry to a gas mixture containing up to 40% of carbon dioxide associated with inert gases leading to anoxia.

4.

Successive exposure of conscious birds to a gas mixture containing up to 40% of carbon dioxide, followed when they have lost consciousness, by a higher concentration of carbon dioxide.

In general, gas stunning/killing of pigs and poultry results in better carcass and meat quality than other established stunning methods. In comparison with electrical stunning, gas stunning or killing can reduce the incidence of broken bones in carcass and hemorrhaging in muscles. However, stunning with gas mixtures containing 40% by volume or more of carbon dioxide tends to retard the rate of rigor development and, hence, tenderness development. By contrast, stunning of pigs and poultry with argon and nitrogen mixtures or a mixture containing less than 30% by volume of carbon dioxide in argon or nitrogen mixture accelerates the rate of postmortem rigor development and tenderization of meat. This is found to be at least as effective as electrical stimulation of carcasses, especially in poultry. Therefore, these gas mixtures provide an opportunity for poultry processors to portion or separate breast muscles soon after chilling (in less than 2   h postmortem) without inducing toughness, provided the muscle temperature is also reduced rapidly by the use of an appropriate chilling method.

However, convulsions occurring as wing flapping after the loss of consciousness in poultry can increase the incidence of dislocated or broken wing bones. Owing to this and the cost of argon, the poultry industry would prefer to use gas mixtures causing less of this quality problem, especially methods involving exposure to low or gradually increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in air as these methods have been known to cause very little or no wing damage in the carcasses.

Irrespective of the species of animals involved, the ever-decreasing competition in the fields of stunning equipment manufacturing and gas distillation and distribution are disconcerting on economic grounds.

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Context for new or expanded facility

In Practical Design, Construction and Operation of Food Facilities, 2009

Food Industry Overview

Various studies have been published of the food industry from an economic and consumer point of view (McCorkle, 1988; Connor, 1988). While these references are old, they are still accurate in an industry that does not change very quickly. The food industry is the largest by economic impact in the USA, with annual sales of over $500 billion. The industry is very diverse, but major segments include those that process raw commodities into ingredients and foods; those that preserve and modify ingredients into foods and ingredients; and those that produce consumer food products.

Examples of each include:

Raw commodities

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Meat animal slaughter (beef, pork, poultry)

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Sugar milling and refining

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Flour milling

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Oil seed processing

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Corn wet and dry milling

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Dairy processing (milk, cream, butter)

Intermediate

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Baking (bread, cake, cookies, crackers)

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Ice cream

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Confectionery

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Vegetable freezing

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Fruit and vegetable dehydration

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Baby foods (fruit and vegetable purees)

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Dry cake mixes

Consumer products

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Soft drinks

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Beer

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Wine

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Canned soups

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Fruit and vegetable juices, aseptic, canned and hot filled

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Prepared meals (refrigerated, frozen and shelf stable).

These examples are not intended to be comprehensive, but rather are to present a small taste of the diversity and variety of the industry.

Corresponding to the wide range of products are the many processes involved, ranging from the relatively simple size reduction and physical separation of flour milling to the sophisticated biochemical process of fermentation and aging involved in making wine. In between are combinations of culinary and engineering art and science to reproduce on a large, commercial scale the flavor, texture and nutrition of home-prepared dishes and meals.

Food companies can be very large, with sales approaching $25 billion per year, and relatively small, with sales that might not exceed $1 million per year. (See the August issue of Food Processing (Putnam Media, Itasca, IL) each year for a list of the top 100 food companies.) In the list for 2007, the top five companies, by food sales in 2006 were:

1. Kraft Foods Inc. $23   118 Million
2. Tyson Foods Inc. 23   059
3. Pepsico Inc. 22   178
4. Nestle (USA and Canada) 20   688
5. Anheuser-Busch Cos. Inc. 11   888

In contrast, the last five on this list were:

96. J & J Snack Foods $515 Million
97. American Seafoods Group LLC 510
98. Pierre Foods 488
99. B & G Foods 411
100. Ruiz Foods 400
  Ventura Foods 400

It took $400 million in sales to make the top 100. Sales of $1 billion put several firms tied at 74th. The top 48 firms had sales of $2 billion or more.

Consolidation among large companies has made the largest multinational firms very large indeed, with operations all over the world. In the context of designing and operating facilities, one consequence is that such firms need to be cognizant of customs, regulations and cultures very different from those of their home country. As one small example, it is common in many countries to provide one or more hot meals each day to the workforce. Sometimes, dormitories are also provided for a work force that may have moved a long distance to get a job. This means that a food facility may need to have a full kitchen and extensive living quarters on site. These are not commonly found in US food facilities.

Religious and cultural practices often affect what foods are popular. Muslim and Jewish adherents do not eat pork; Hindus do not eat beef; Muslims avoid alcohol; and Chinese apparently like corn chowder, among other preferences. Such cultural practices affect what food products are likely to sell well in a given market and thus what a given facility is intended to do.

The distribution systems in developing countries may be relatively primitive due to poor roads, lack of refrigeration in homes and stores, and the lack of a commercial infrastructure. These conditions mean that the scale of operation may need to be smaller than it would be in the USA. Products that are shelf stable, as compared with frozen or refrigerated, are better suited for developing countries. Food manufacturers may need to establish their own system of distribution centers and wholesalers, whereas third parties in the USA often handle these functions.

Some facilities may be located to take advantage of local raw materials. Thus, for example, sugar mills are in tropical areas because sugar cane is a tropical crop. Sugar mills produce raw sugar, which is about 97% pure sucrose, and is shipped closer to markets in temperate areas for further refining. Tropical oils, such as palm oil and palm nut oil are harvested and the raw oil produced close to the palm plantations, with refining taking place closer to shipping points on the coasts of Southeast Asia.

Another factor in facility location is the relative density of the raw material and finished product. For instance, potato chip snacks, which have a low bulk density, are commonly made near population centers, while frozen and dehydrated potato products are usually made near potato producing areas.

Wheat flour mills in the USA tend to be located near wheat producing areas and near water ports on rivers, lakes or oceans. Flour users, such as bread bakers are closer to markets. Cookie and cracker bakers may have larger and fewer plants because cookies and crackers are denser than bread and have a longer shelf life.

The customers of food manufacturers are not usually consumers but the stores and food service institutions that serve consumers. About 50% of food consumed in the USA is consumed outside of the home, so the manufacture and distribution of products for food service are increasingly important. These products are different in many ways from those intended for use in the home or factory. Food service products are often refrigerated or frozen, are usually portion controlled, and may be heavily influenced by culinary concepts. This means they are conceived and developed by chefs or people with some culinary training and are meant to be used by kitchen personnel in restaurants, colleges, hospitals and prisons. Consumer food products, in contrast, are often developed by food scientists and food technologists.

Consumer food products tend to be sold in supermarkets, convenience stores and, increasingly, in mass merchandisers. Often these customers have their own distribution systems and centers (DC). Usually, food manufacturers have distribution centers as well, so there can be some redundant handling as a product moves from factory to distribution center to another distribution center and then to the store. Rationalizing the food distribution system is a major cost reduction opportunity, but the ideal solution has not emerged yet.

Some products require direct store delivery (DSD), usually because they are perishable or have such high sales volume that they need frequent deliveries. Bread, milk, soft drinks and salty snacks are examples of foods delivered daily to most stores. DSD is an expensive distribution system because it is labor intensive and because fuel costs have been increasing. DSD driver/salespeople are often paid a commission on sales, which provides a substantial incentive, but adds to costs. Some are company employees while others may be independent contractors who own their equipment. Independent contractors often service vending machines for snacks, soft drinks and confections. DSD once was largely a cash business, with store owners paying on the spot. This is less common now. Managing and controlling a widely dispersed sales and delivery force can be a challenge.

Mass merchandisers have been influencing the food industry because they demand low prices, very good service and, often, special packaging (especially in 'club' stores). They also move very large amounts of product, so accommodating them is a major objective. Food manufacturers often open dedicated sales offices near the headquarters of mass merchandisers so as to service them better.

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The role of lipids in food quality

Z.E. Sikorski , G. Sikorska-Wiśniewska , in Improving the Fat Content of Foods, 2006

9.2.1 Lipid changes which influence the colour of red meats

The colour of meat of slaughter animals is affected by the contents and predominantly by the chemical state of haemoproteins – myoglobin (MbFe(II)) and to a lesser degree haemoglobin and the cytochromes (see also Section 13.6). The natural, cherry-red colour of beef meat on the fresh cut surface is due to the reduced forms of the muscle haemoproteins (Fig. 9.1). Oxygenation of the Fe(II)-containing pigments at high partial pressure of oxygen leads to formation of oxymyoglobin (MbFe(II)O2) of light-red coloration. In beef meat the initial purplish-red colour turns to bright-red in about 30 min after exposing the cut surface to air. Oxidation results in a change of the colour to the undesirable brown. In beef muscle the brownish discoloration is perceptible when about 60% of the total amount of meat pigments is oxidized to metmyoglobin. In order to stabilize the desirable light-red colour of fresh meat it is necessary to avoid oxidation by using appropriate packaging of the cuts or by adding various antioxidants.

Fig. 9.1. The main changes in meat pigments.

There is an interrelation between the undesirable changes in colour and the lipid oxidation in meat. Oxidation of MbFe(II)O2 may be the first step in a chain of events leading to oxidative changes in lipids, and vice versa, oxidized muscle lipids and liposomes can catalyse the browning of meat haemoproteins (Monahan 2000). Among the secondary lipid oxidation products found in meat are various aldehydes of different molecular weight and degree of unsaturation. The species present in highest concentrations are usually malonaldehyde, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, and hexanal. Many unsaturated aldehydes react readily with proteins, α, β-Unsaturated aldehydes may lead to colour changes by covalently binding to MbFe(II)O2 and thus by changing the conformation of the molecule, that results in exposure of the haeme iron to oxidation (Faustman and Wang 2000).

Various carotenoids are able to decrease the rate of oxidation of MbFe(II)O2 and to reduce oxidized forms of myoglobin, thus increasing the colour stability of meat (Mortensen and Skibsted 2000). Also α-tocopherol, although it is lipid soluble, is known to stabilize MbFe(II)02 in beef. It acts most probably by retarding the generation of primary lipid peroxides and the release of their water-soluble, pro-oxidative, free-radical breakdown products, predominantly unsaturated aldehydes or HOo radicals (Faustman and Wang 2000). Dietary supplementation of livestock with vitamin E is effective in delaying lipid oxidation and discoloration of fresh beef. The administration of antioxidants to the livestock in order to improve the colour stability of meat has been also treated by Moloney in Chapter 13.

The caselife of a beef cut, i.e. the time over which the meat retains the desirable bright-red colour and can be exhibited in retail display, prior to its being discounted in price, may reach from 1 to about 5 days. It depends on the reducing capacity of the muscles. The economic implications of undesirable colour changes in beef and the effectiveness of the applied counter-measures have been discussed by Smith et al. (2000).

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QUALITY MANAGEMENT | Farm-Level

J.H. Huiskes , ... J.B. van der Fels , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences, 2004

Management

In some QA schemes, proper handling of slaughter animals is a point of protocol for farmer, transport and slaughterhouse. For the farmer, preslaughter feed withdrawal is included with respect to meat quality, food safety and animal welfare. Additionally, the environmental pressure will be reduced. Monitoring can be done by measuring related parameters in the slaughterhouse and feedback of management information to the producer.

For optimization of the desired quality of meat and decreasing variability, collaboration is important between producers, slaughterhouses, breeding organizations and feed suppliers in choosing appropriate combinations of genotype, feeding system strategy and composition. Risk management against the occurrence of offensive odour of meat caused by such factors as specific feed components and boar taint in entire male pigs should be considered.

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Nutritional and health impacts of religious and vegetarian food

Ahasanul Haque , ... Farzana Yasmin , in Preparation and Processing of Religious and Cultural Foods, 2018

5.3.1 The nutritional impact of religious food

Most religious food are believed to have its own benefit especially when dealing with nutrition and health. For instance, the use of caffeine is prohibited or restricted by many religions because of its addictive properties and harmful physical effects. Many also restrict spices and certain condiments, such as pepper, pickles, or food with preservatives, because they change the natural taste of food.

Besides, the use of wine in religious ceremonies is regarded as acceptable by certain groups. For example, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and certain Protestant denominations use wine as a sacramental product to represent the blood of Christ in communion services. According to the writings of the apostle Paul, wine used in moderation may be consumed for the soothing effect it has upon an upset stomach. Mormons, however, specifically forbid wine or any alcoholic drinks because of their stimulant properties. Jews regard grapes as a fruit of idolatry, and therefore, forbid the use of wine or products made from grapes except under special conditions.

Many religious leaders and healthcare experts regard tobacco, another stimulant, as a malignant poison that affects the health of its users. Research continues to support the harmful and deleterious effects of the use of cigarettes and tobacco products. Cancer, high blood pressure, and heart disease have all been linked to tobacco use. Although marijuana has been shown to control pain in advanced diseases such as cancer, it has been considered a restricted drug by all but those practicing Rastafarianism. Rastafarians introduced marijuana into their religious rites because they consider it the "weed of wisdom" and because they believe it contains healing ingredients.

Furthermore, it is compulsory in Islam to slaughter animals before eating their flesh. There are evidences to prove that the Islamic method of slaughtering animals is scientific and not inhumane (Azizi, 2010). The following are the conditions to slaughter animals based on Islamic method:

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The animal has to be slaughtered with a sharp object (knife) as fast as possible in order to reduce the pain of slaughter.

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The "slaughtering" is to be done by cutting the throat, windpipe, and the blood vessels in the neck causing the animal's death without cutting the spinal cord.

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The blood has to be drained completely before the head is removed. The purpose is drain out most of the blood which would serve as a good culture medium for micro-organisms. The spinal cord must not be cut because the nerve fibers to the heart could be damaged during the process causing cardiac arrest, stagnating the blood in the blood vessels.

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Blood is a good media of germs, bacteria, toxins, and so forth. Thus, the Muslim way of slaughtering is more hygienic as most of the blood containing germs, bacteria, toxins, and others that cause several diseases are eliminated.

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Meat slaughtered by Islamic way remains fresh for a longer time due to absence of blood in the meat as compared to other methods of slaughtering.

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Besides, the swift cutting of vessels of the neck disconnects the flow of blood to the nerve of the brain responsible for pain. Thus, the animal does not feel pain. While dying, the animal struggles, writhes, shakes, and kicks, not due to pain but due to the contraction and relaxation of the muscles deficient in blood and due to the flow of blood out of the body.

•

The animal has to be lawful to eat, alive, healthy, and has to be slaughtered only for the name of Allah (s.w.t.), The Creator, and not for any other reasons. The slaughter must comply himself as a true Muslim.

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STUNNING | Electrical Stunning

E. Lambooij , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014

Stunning

Electroanesthesia is widely used for the stunning of slaughter animals. The amounts of current necessary to stun various species of farmed animals are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Recommended minimal current for electrical stunning of poultry, ruminants, pigs, and fish

Species Head-only Water-bath/water tank Head to body
Broiler 240   mA 100   mA<200   Hz-1
Turkey 400   mA 250   mA<200   Hz-1
Ostrich 500   mA
Duck and geese 130   mA<200   Hz-1
Quails 45   mA<45   Hz-1
Cow 1.28   A
Calf 1.25   A
Sheep and goat 1.0   A 1.0   A
Pigs 1.3   A 1.0   A
Eel 600   mA 0.64   A   dm-2
Trout 500   mA
African catfish 630   mA 1.6   A   dm-2 570   mA
Carp 240   mA 0.14   A   dm-2
Salmon 670   mA
Cod 2.5   A   dm-2
Turbot 3.2   A   dm-2
Tilapia 1.0   A   dm-2
Sea bass 4.3   A   dm-2

Effective electrical stunning can be ascertained from the occurrence of generalized epileptiform activity in the brain by using EEG. Generalized epileptiform EEG consists of relatively small waves increasing in amplitude in the tonic phase and decreasing in frequency in the clonic phase to result ultimately in a period of strong depression of electrical activity in pigs, sheep, calves, and poultry (Figure 1). Several studies involving sheep, in which neurotransmitters have been measured, coupled with pharmacological experiments, suggest the general epileptiform insult induced by an electrical stun is dependent on the release of vasopressin, oxytocin, glutamate, aspartate, and gamma amino-4-butyric acid (GABA). The first phase induced by the stun produces the tonic phase through the release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. This is followed by the release of GABA that provides a period of analgesia and also assists in the recovery if the animal is not slaughtered. The observed behavior of a general epileptiform insult is characterized by a phase of tonic muscle spasm followed by a phase of clonic muscle spasms and ultimately an exhaustion phase with muscle flaccidity. An eye reflex cannot be used as an indicator, because the reflex is blocked during the tonic phase and may occur spontaneously during the clonic phase. In sheep as well as in other mammals the extensors are stronger than the flexors that caused the extension. During head-only stunning, broilers may display wing flapping during and after stunning, which is sometimes intensive. Fish, which were able to move freely, initially showed limited tonic/clonic cramps, followed by heavy clonic contractions combined with uncoordinated movements or turning aside. The flexors and extensors in fish are considered to be equal in strength, which may explain the observation of limited tonic and clonic cramps.

Figure 1. Trace of the EEG before and during a general epileptiform insult. The relatively small waves (initial phase) became larger (tonic phase) with an increase in amplitude and a decrease in frequency, followed by a period of strong depression of electrical activity (exhaustion phase) and recovery.

The most common electrical stunning method for livestock uses a frequency of 50   Hz alternating current (AC) with sinusoidal waveform. The frequency can be as high as 1800   Hz, and the waveform can be square or rectangular. High-frequency electrical stunning can induce epileptiform activity in the brain; however, relatively higher amounts of current are necessary to induce epileptiform activity and the duration of unconsciousness also shorter than those with 50   Hz. A sufficiently prolonged period of unconsciousness and insensibility (e.g., 40   s) is necessary to facilitate exsanguination (bleeding out) and onset of death in unconscious animals. In this regard, a bipolar sine or square wave is found to be more effective than monopolar-pulsed direct currents. In 'head to body' stunning involving passage of a 50   Hz sine wave alternating current simultaneously through the brain and heart, the animal may die due to a heart failure, which is recordable on an electrocardiogram (ECG). The heart failure results in loss of blood pressure and lack of oxygen to the brain and affects the characteristics of general epileptiform insult.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a recently developed noninvasive technique used in human psychiatry to treat depression with slowly repeated pulses to the frontal lobe or to induce seizures. A study was done to determine whether or not TMS with an adapted coil has potential for further development as a noninvasive stunning method for broilers and rabbits but further research and development is needed to optimize parameters.

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HACCP and farm production

A.M. Johnston , in HACCP in the Meat Industry, 2000

4.5 HACCP plans for sheep and goats

The primary output from a sheep farm is the slaughter animals, but sheep may be milked to produce drinking milk or further processing, whereas it is the converse in goat herds. The comments on milking cows are equally applicable to sheep, although the scale of the operation is usually smaller. There may be a sector of the industry in which hand-milking is carried out, but mechanical milking equipment is readily available. To ensure that a HACCP plan applied to a sheep flock remains simple and workable it must be separated from any flock health scheme. There are many diseases that pertain to the overall health and productivity of the flock and, possibly, to the quality of the meat but that will not directly affect human health. The production of sheep as summarised in Table should be considered along with the general production information in Table 4.3.

In the sheep flock there is the additional concern for the health of the stockman from zoonoses which cause abortion, such as Chlamydia psittaci, Toxoplasma gondii, Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., and the use of chemicals, e.g. organophosphates, as dips. In terms of the diseases mentioned in Table 4.6, evidence of parasitic infestation will be the most likely indication of action being required at post-mortem meat inspection.

Table 4.6. Summary of production stages for sheep

Procedure Problem Prevention
Replacement animals Buying in disease, e.g. Maedi visna virus, Caseous lymphadenitis Purchase from known disease-free source; do not introduce to flock until certain they are not carriers or excretors
Vaccination Clostridial diseases, pneumonia and abortion agents – cause mortality, morbidity and condemnation at meat inspection Vaccination of all sheep with booster of clostridial vaccine before lambing to ensure maximum passive immunity transfer to lambs
Feed Contamination of incoming feed and in stores with enteric bacteria and Toxoplasma gondii and moulds Lamb feed with coccidiostat Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy agent Vermin-proof stores; avoid contamination of hay by cat faeces; good quality hay and silage
Apply withdrawal period No mammalian derived protein in feed and genotype breeding males for susceptibility
Environment Spread of disease by direct contact between sheep, from discharges (e.g. uterine fluids and placenta), aerosol or by handler Use good quality straw and remove placentas from lambing yards. Clean and disinfect pens. Good ventilation if housed
Antibiotic use Injection site abscess Residues in meat Resistance, e.g. following prophylaxis for watery mouth (E. coli) infection Sterile needles and good technique
Withdrawal periods adhered to Avoid need by clean environment and good colostrum intake
Pasture contamination Waterlogged pasture encourage coccidia and fluke Nematode infestation Hydatid, T. ovis, T. hydatigena infestation Adequate drainage or fence off and use of coccidiostat and flukicide
Pasture management and use of anthelmintic
Regular worming of dogs
Foot care Welfare
Arthritis and pyaemia possible		 Early recognition and treatment
Routine foot trimming and dipping
Dipping Ectoparasites – fleece damage and possible emaciation Post-dipping lameness (Erysipelas rhusiopathiae) Routine dipping or injectable product
Keep dip solution clean with possible use of antbacterials in solution. Use spray
Crutching Ewes Reduce faecal contamination at lambing or at milking; avoid flystrike
Lambs Reduce faecal contamination at slaughter and flystrike in summer
Housing before slaughter Lambs coming off wet fields or fodder crops can be very soiled Put out deep, clean, dry straw bedding for a few days or until suitable to go for slaughter

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